Cicero
Born 106 · Age 1919
Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator and writer; leading figure of the late Roman Republic, famed for oratory, philosophical works, and his role opposing Antony after Caesar's assassination.
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Life & Career Timeline
Birth in Arpinum
Born Marcus Tullius Cicero in Arpinum, a municipium of the Roman Republic; son of an equestrian family.
Petrarch rediscovers Cicero's letters — catalyst for Renaissance
Petrarch's rediscovery of Cicero's letters (14th century) is credited with helping initiate Renaissance humanism and revival of classical culture; demonstrates Cicero's long-term legacy.
Left Cilicia; handed command to brother Quintus
On 30 July 50 BC Cicero departed the province and passed responsibility to his brother Quintus (who had served as his legate).
Minted cistophori at Apamea (51–50 BC)
Coinage (cistophori) minted during his proconsulship in Apamea Cibotus (51–50 BC) — numismatic evidence of his administration.
Military action in the East; hailed imperator
While governor of Cilicia Cicero restored order, fought Parthian raiders and local brigands, besieged mountain tribes' fortress Pindenissum (47-day siege), and was hailed imperator by his troops.
Accepted proconsulship of Cilicia
Reluctantly accepted a promagisterial provincial command as proconsul of Cilicia; took office May 51 BC, arriving around August to govern and defend the province.
Milo–Clodius conflict and Pro Milone defence
Publius Clodius was killed in 52 BC; Cicero defended Titus Annius Milo (Pro Milone) for the killing — the defence was politically consequential though unsuccessful in restoring Cicero's full prestige.
Freed Tiro (freedman and secretary; c.53 BC)
Cicero freed his longtime slave and secretary Marcus Tullius Tiro (commonly dated c.53 BC); Tiro later preserved Cicero's correspondence.
Palinode and alignment with triumvirs after Luca conference
After the 56 BC Luca conference renewed the Triumvirate, Cicero publicly wrote a palinode and aligned politically (formally supporting triumviral measures) to avoid exclusion.
Recalled from exile; landed at Brundisium
After political intervention (notably by Pompey and Titus Annius Milo) the Senate voted to recall Cicero; he landed at Brundisium 5 August 57 BC and returned to Rome amid acclaim.
Clodius' laws and Cicero's exile
Publius Clodius Pulcher engineered laws that targeted Cicero (retroactive law against executing citizens without trial) and drove him into exile (58 BC).
Arrived at Thessalonica in exile
Cicero fled Rome and arrived at Thessalonica on 23 May 58 BC during his exile; his house on the Palatine was confiscated and demolished by Clodius.
Triumvirate consolidates power under Caesar's consulship
During Caesar's consulship of 59 BC the alliance pushed through measures that marginalized independent senatorial operators like Cicero.
Refused to join Caesar–Pompey–Crassus alliance
Declined Julius Caesar's offer to enter the emerging First Triumvirate (Caesar, Pompey, Crassus) — an attempt to preserve constitutional norms.
Purchase of Palatine house (formerly Crassus')
Arranged late-62 BC purchase of a large townhouse on the Palatine Hill previously owned by Crassus; financed by borrowing c.2,000,000 sesterces.
Suppression of the Catilinarian conspiracy; executions
After seizing incriminating evidence and confessions, Cicero had five conspirators executed without full trial (Tullianum) — act later used against him politically.
Elected Consul of the Roman Republic
Achieved the consulship (highest elected magistracy) at the earliest practical age; co-consul with Gaius Antonius Hybrida.
Awarded pater patriae
Honoured with the title pater patriae ('father of the country') for his role in exposing and suppressing Catiline's conspiracy.
Senatus consultum ultimum (state emergency)
The Senate passed the senatus consultum ultimum (the 'final decree') in the crisis surrounding Catiline — gave the consul emergency authority used by Cicero.
Delivered first Catilinarian speech
Delivered the first of the Catilinarian orations denouncing Lucius Catilina and driving Catiline from the city; key moment in suppressing the conspiracy.
Praetorship and president of extortion court
Elected praetor in 66 BC and served as president of the extortion (quaestio de repetundis) court — a major judicial role.
Elected Aedile
Held the office of aedile (public works, games) at or near the youngest legal age as part of the cursus honorum.
Prosecution of Gaius Verres
Launched and won the celebrated prosecution of Governor Gaius Verres for corruption — established Cicero as Rome's leading orator and advocate.
Quaestorship in Sicily; rediscovered Archimedes' tomb
Served in Sicily as quaestor (financial administration); financed rediscovery of Archimedes' tomb and won local gratitude by balancing provincial duties with support for provincials.
Elected Quaestor (quaestorian elections)
Elected quaestor in the comitia at the earliest legal age; assignment by lot to the province of Sicily for service (official quaestorship in 75 BC).
Study tour to Greece, Asia Minor, Rhodes (begins)
Left for Greece, Asia Minor and Rhodes to study rhetoric and philosophy (Apollonius Molon, Antiochus of Ascalon) and to train oratorical skill and physique.
Marriage to Terentia
Cicero married Terentia (marriage later recorded as c.79/80 BC); Terentia remained a major personal/political partner for decades.
Defence in Pro Roscio Amerino (first criminal case)
Defended Sextus Roscius of Ameria on a charge of parricide; high-profile victory that enhanced his reputation as an orator.
First major court appearance: Pro Quinctio
Delivered Pro Quinctio in defence of commercial transactions — first recorded major appearance in Roman courts.
Early rhetorical writing: On Invention (approx.)
As a young student Cicero wrote a pamphlet 'On Invention' (De Inventione) on rhetorical argumentation — an early rhetorical handbook.
Studied under Philo of Larissa (Academy)
Philo of Larissa (head of the Platonic Academy) arrived in Rome; Cicero studied Academic skepticism and Greek philosophy under him.
Witnessed Sulpicius' oratory in Rome unrest
In Rome during tribunate turbulence of Publius Sulpicius Rufus (88 BC), Cicero was impressed by Sulpicius' oratory; continued legal and rhetorical study.
Military service in the Social War
At about age 15–16 Cicero served under Pompey Strabo and later Sulla in the Social War between Rome and its Italian allies.
Revived as princeps senatus (approx.)
Diehard republicans may have revived the ancient office of princeps senatus for Cicero in April 43 BC — a symbolic restoration of senatorial leadership.
Lex Titia establishes Second Triumvirate
The law lex Titia (27 Nov 43 BC) legalized the political alliance of Octavian, Antony and Lepidus for five years; the Triumvirs instituted proscriptions.
Proscription and assassination at Formiae
Cicero was proscribed by the Second Triumvirate and killed on 7 December 43 BC while attempting to flee Italy; his head and hands were displayed on the Rostra.
Composed political and philosophical works after Caesar's death
Wrote key philosophical works (e.g., De Officiis finished after Caesar's assassination) and began the Philippics — speeches against Mark Antony.
Delivered the Philippics against Mark Antony
Began a sequence of speeches (the Philippics) denouncing Mark Antony and urging the Senate to support Octavian against Antony's ambitions.
Assassination of Julius Caesar (Ides of March)
Julius Caesar was assassinated on 15 March 44 BC by the Liberatores; Cicero was not a conspirator but celebrated the assassination and was politically active afterward.
Published De Finibus (On the Ends) (approx.)
Composed De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum (On the Ends) around 45 BC, an important philosophical treatise discussing major Hellenistic schools.
Death of daughter Tullia; Consolation (lost)
Cicero's beloved daughter Tullia died (commonly dated 45 BC); he wrote a Consolation (now lost) to cope with his grief.
Publication: De Oratore (approx. 55 BC) and later philosophical corpus produced
Cicero produced a large body of philosophical and rhetorical works across 55–44 BC (De Oratore, De Republica, De Legibus, Tusculanae Disputationes, De Natura Deorum, De Officiis, etc.). Dates vary by work.
Marriage to Publilia (approx.)
Cicero's second marriage to Publilia is recorded c.46–45 BC after divorce from Terentia (date of formal divorce c.51 BC).
Published Brutus, Paradoxa Stoicorum, Orator (approx.)
During his reduced political activity 46 BC Cicero produced literary and rhetorical works including Brutus, Paradoxa Stoicorum and Orator.
Returned to Rome; pardoned by Caesar
Returned to Rome (47 BC); Caesar pardoned Cicero. He dismissed his lictors upon crossing the pomerium and renounced his military command.
Battle of Pharsalus (Pompey defeated)
Pompey was defeated by Caesar at Pharsalus (9 August 48 BC); Cicero was with Pompeian forces but refused to continue the war after the defeat.
Returned to Italy amid civil war tensions
Cicero arrived back in Italy (4 January 49 BC) remaining outside the pomerium to retain promagisterial powers; later left Italy when Caesar invaded and aligned with Pompeian forces.
Met Pompey; accepted commission to recruit
Met Pompey outside Rome (17 January 49 BC) and accepted a commission to supervise recruiting in Campania; he later declined to leave Italy with Pompey on 17 March.
Key Achievement Ages
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